Research Articles (Psychology)

Permanent URI for this collectionhttp://hdl.handle.net/2263/1798

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SWOT analysis of child and adolescent mental health services in the rural Chris Hani District, Eastern Cape, South Africa
Jinoyi, Nomava Siyasamkela; Davids, Eugene Lee (MDPI, 2026-05-29)
Child and adolescent mental health (CAMH) is a global concern that is increasingly recognized and prioritized. Worldwide, mental health conditions affect a significant number of children and adolescents; however, access to CAMH services remains limited. This study sought to explore the implementation of child and adolescent mental health services in the rural Chris Hani District of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa, from the perspectives of health professionals and teachers, focusing on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Using a qualitative approach, a sample of 36 participants (12 health professionals and 24 teachers) was purposively recruited. Data were collected through face-to-face, semi-structured individual interviews and focus group discussions. Thematic analysis identified several strengths, including effective screening and identification of CAMH problems, training in psychiatry and psychology, teacher support, collaboration with stakeholders, and the availability of policy and guidelines. Key weaknesses included inadequate CAMH training, a limited CAMH workforce, personal barriers, guidelines primarily oriented toward physical health, and insufficient basic infrastructure. Opportunities for improvement include enhancing the skills of the existing workforce, increasing engagement in extramural activities, and empowering parents with knowledge of available CAMH services. Identified threats included the normalization of CAMH symptoms, challenges involving parents and feeder schools, stigma, poor stakeholder collaboration, and inadequate guidelines. Overall, the analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats reflects the broader challenges present in low-resource settings that hinder the implementation of CAMH services. It also highlights the need for integrative approaches to implementing CAMH services in rural contexts, while identifying opportunities to improve service delivery.
Consigned to oblivion : remembering the South African Cape Coloured Corps
Arendse, Danille Elize (Routledge, 2026)
The South African Cape Coloured Corps officially came into existence during the First World War and was regarded as a colonial project. Despite the integral role played by these Coloured soldiers, their participation in both the World Wars and the subsequent military history of South Africa has become marginalized and even forgotten. As a result, these Coloured soldiers have not received the recognition or honour earned by war veterans. This paper aims to critically analyse the suppressed history of the South African Cape Coloured Corps by paying attention to their racialized identity as Coloured men. The racial classification of Coloured was created to divide people of colour as part of a divide-and-rule strategy and to facilitate social control in South Africa. The Coloured classification is, however, argued to be socially constructed and is complicated by experiences of hostility, inferiority, shame, and stereotyping. Furthermore, Coloured identity is burdened by the perception that persons with mixed ancestry have inherently negative traits. Since their identity cannot be separated from their silenced history as soldiers, they are caught up in continuous wounding. By connecting their silenced history as part and parcel of Coloured identity, the paper argues that it is necessary to facilitate a recognition of that which is lost and may never return, thereby acknowledging their contribution and restoring dignity to the South African Cape Coloured Corps. Revisiting the history of the South African Cape Coloured Corps is thus a resistance against being consigned to oblivion.
Interpretation by way of the signifier : a response to Gregory Rizzolo's "The significance of the interpretant in the field of speech"
Dall’Aglio, John; Hook, Derek (Sage, 2026)
We are grateful for the opportunity to comment on Gregory Rizzolo’s article contrasting Peircean and Lacanian views of speech and the role of countertransference in the communicative process. We make the following remarks in hope of (a) clarifying some Lacanian concepts in relation to Rizzolo’s use of Peirce’s framework and (b) illuminating alternative interventions and clinical conceptualizations on the examples offered by Rizzolo. We believe that such ongoing dialogue between Lacanian and non-Lacanian psychoanalysis is incredibly valuable and productive for elaborating and reflecting on psychoanalytic theory and praxis.
The effect of career construction counselling on high school students' career decision-making difficulties and career adaptability
Magere, Grace Makunja; Maree, J.G. (Kobus); Rajab, Pakeezah (Sage, 2026-06)
This study investigated the effect of career construction counselling as an intervention on addressing career decision-making difficulties and enhancing career adaptability of high school students in Tanzania. The study sample consisted of 66 Form Five students (Grade 11) drawn from two public high schools in Morogoro Municipality. An intervention group of 35 students received career construction counselling, while a comparison group of 31 students continued with traditional regular classes. A quasi experimental pre- and post-test design was used to assess participants’ career decision-making difficulties and adaptability before and after intervention. The results indicated statistically significant differences between the pre- and post-test interventions, implying that the intervention decreased students’ career decision-making difficulties and increased their career adaptability. Future research could expand this line of inquiry by including larger and more diverse samples, conducting longitudinal follow-ups to examine sustained effects, and exploring the applicability of career construction counselling across different cultural and educational contexts.
Predictors and profiles of mental health and well-being among South African university students
Muller, Jacomien; Martin, Jarred H.; Mostert, Sonja Nicolene; Van Appel, Jolize Joubert (Sage, 2026-06)
In South African higher education, students encounter numerous challenges that affect their mental health and well-being. This study examined the incidence and predictors of mental health among 1,366 students at a public, in-contact South African university. A quantitative cross-sectional survey design was employed, using the Mental Health Continuum Short Form alongside measures of life satisfaction, sexual well-being, health literacy, and psychosocial and institutional factors. Descriptive findings indicated that most (66%) students reported moderate mental health, with 28% flourishing and 6% languishing. Bivariate correlations showed strong positive associations between mental health and life satisfaction, sexual well-being, and health literacy. While small significant differences were found across demographic groups, hierarchical regression revealed that psychosocial factors, particularly life satisfaction, components of health literacy, and social support, were the strongest predictors, accounting for the largest proportion of variance in mental health (R² = .61), whereas structural and academic factors played smaller roles. A two-step cluster analysis identified two distinct profiles: a ‘Strained and Stressed’ group characterised by structural disadvantage and fewer psychosocial support, and a ‘Resourced and Supported’ group with greater resource security and psychosocial resources. Cluster membership explained over 12% of the variance in mental health, underscoring the interplay of structural and psychosocial factors in shaping student well-being. Results suggest that interventions designed to strengthen psychosocial resources such as social connection, health literacy, and life satisfaction may enhance students’ mental health and mitigate the effects of structural disadvantages.
Exploring detectives’ emotional and psychological experiences in interactions with families in intimate femicide cases
Nkosi, Khetsiwe Emmah; Matamela, Nyambeni Asnath; Sibisi, Nonhle Tracey (Sage, 2026-03)
Intimate femicide remains one of the most urgent and devastating forms of gender-based violence in South Africa. While existing research has centred on the prevalence and legal responses to such cases, less attention has been given to the emotional and psychological experiences of detectives who must engage with both the investigative process and the interaction with bereaved families. This study explores the emotional and psychological experiences of detectives’ interactions with families in intimate femicide cases. In-depth interviews were conducted with eight South African Police Service detectives from Gauteng province. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was utilised to explore the emotional and psychological impact of such work, focusing on death notifications and ongoing family interactions. Analysis revealed three interlinked findings: (1) detectives as first witnesses to families’ shock, disbelief, and embodied grief; (2) the emotional labour, cumulative strain, and personal identity spillover arising from repeated exposure to trauma; and (3) the challenges of managing death notifications in the context of training gaps, procedural frictions, and high family expectations. The study contributes to psychological literature on trauma-exposed occupations and emphasises the need for trauma-informed policing practices that address both interpersonal engagement and officer mental health.
Empowering young adults in disadvantaged communities to promote mental health among their peers
Hadebe, Nqobile Nqobi; Visser, Maretha (Sage, 2026-03)
Youth living in disadvantaged communities such as Mamelodi, a peri-urban settlement in the City of Tshwane in South Africa, have limited access to mental health services. Community-based interventions to promote mental health can play a crucial role in such contexts. This research aimed to empower young adults to promote mental health through peer-led interventions. Using action research, salient issues were identified to effect social change through collaboration. The local radio station and community organisations assisted with the recruitment of young adults (18–24 years) through snowball sampling. Seven out-of-school young adults joined the study as peer leaders. Eight project meetings were held between June and December 2023 to plan and implement an intervention aimed at improving the mental health literacy of their peers. During an interview at the community radio station, the peer leaders discussed the mental health challenges of youth. They created a video on depression and suicide, and a pamphlet containing information on mental health support, available on the community radio station’s Facebook page and their personal social media accounts. A large number of viewers accessed this information. Recordings of project sessions and a focus group discussion with the peer leaders were analysed using thematic analysis to explore their experiences of the project. Participation in the project contributed to the personal growth of the peer leaders, particularly the development of competence, confidence, and personal well-being, and a sense of psychological empowerment that enabled them to contribute to the lives of their peers. Their peers also benefitted, as they received mental health information and social support from the peer leaders. The research emphasises the value of peer-led interventions as a strategy to promote mental health literacy and emotional support among young people.
South African parents’ perspectives and experiences of child sexual abuse prevention education during early childhood
Theron, Lana; Muller, Jacomien (Routledge, 2026)
Childhood sexual abuse is an increasingly urgent concern, particularly as technological advancements have made it easier to create and distribute harmful content. In South Africa, the incidence of child sexual abuse is very high. Child sexual abuse prevention education, which teaches children about privacy, bodily autonomy, and safety strategies, is a key approach to mitigating risk. However, child sexual abuse prevention remains under-researched in South Africa, particularly regarding parental involvement, and during early childhood, despite evidence that parents play a critical role in educating children about protective behaviors. This study explores South African parents’ perspectives and experiences on implementing child sexual abuse prevention education during early childhood. A qualitative approach, involving semi-structured interviews with 12 parents, was employed. The use of reflective thematic analysis identified three main themes: 1) the child sexual abuse narrative, 2) parental experiences with child sexual abuse prevention education, and 3) childhood sexual abuse prevention as a collective effort. These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions in South Africa to empower parents in early childhood child sexual abuse prevention, emphasizing a collaborative approach to protecting children.
Perceptions of child and adolescent mental health services in rural communities of the Chris Hani District, Eastern Cape province, South Africa
Jinoyi, Nomava Siyasamkela; Davids, Eugene Lee (NISC Pty (Ltd) and Informa Limited (trading as Taylor & Francis Group), 2026)
BACKGROUND : Globally, child and adolescent mental health services are a priority. Efforts are being made to highlight the gap in health systems concerning the lack of these services and to provide evidence for their necessity, particularly in disadvantaged areas such as rural communities in low- and middle- income countries. OBJECTIVE : This study aimed to investigate the perceptions of child and adolescent mental health services within primary healthcare facilities and secondary schools in rural communities of the Chris Hani District in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. METHOD : The study employed a qualitative research approach with an exploratory design, recruiting 36 participants, including 12 professional nurses and 24 secondary school teachers, through purposive sampling. Data were collected via individual semi-structured interviews (n = 12) with professional nurses and focus group discussions (n = 6) with teachers. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. RESULTS : The findings demonstrated a lack of child and adolescent mental health services in both primary healthcare facilities and secondary schools in rural communities, where children and adolescents could potentially access such services. Specifically, primary healthcare facilities reported having no mental health patients under the age of 18 years. Both healthcare professionals and schoolteachers indicated a lack of expertise in implementing services. CONCLUSION : Child and adolescent mental health services are lacking in rural communities of the Chris Hani District, Eastern Cape province, South Africa.
A marriage skills intervention to improve the marital competencies of couples in multicultural resource-limited communities in South Africa
Visser, Maretha; Saunders, Marilyn Cathleen (Routledge, 2025-08-16)
Despite the importance of healthy marriages in family and community health, couples in South Africa receive limited preparation and training to equip them for married life. Research shows that participation in couple relationship education can help couples to strengthen their relationship skills, enhance relationship quality, and increase marital satisfaction. This research aimed to develop, implement, and evaluate a group-based marriage skills intervention in a multicultural context that is accessible to couples in resource-limited communities to improve couples’ marital competencies and satisfaction. An action research approach was used, starting with a situation analysis, using mixed-methods. An 18-hour intervention, based on the marital systems theory and the needs of couples in this community, was presented to 14 couples (divided into small groups of four to five couples) whose cultural backgrounds were diverse. A mixed-methods evaluation showed significant improvement in couples’ communication and conflict management, awareness and empathy for each other’s emotions, and they developed more closeness and commitment. The intervention showed promise to improve relationships in a low-resourced multicultural context. Such marital interventions can contribute to the mental health of families and the community.
Exploring healthcare professionals' preparedness for health informatics in healthcare in a South African metropolitan city
Chikware, Arthur B.; Roman, Nicolette V.; Davids, Eugene Lee (Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, 2025-07)
INTRODUCTION : The increased use of computing technologies has led to the integration of digital technologies in most human activities. The term health informatics (HI) is synonymous with the application of digitisation in healthcare. The increasing digitisation in the health sector necessitates HI and digital competencies. Accordingly, healthcare professionals need to be proficient in technology applications to be effective users. Consequently, this research explored healthcare professionals’ preparedness for HI and digitisation in the healthcare sector. METHODS : The guidelines of the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) steps were employed to conduct the study. 31 participants were acquired through purposive and snowball sampling strategies. The interviewed participants comprised healthcare students, lecturers and practitioners from medicine, social work, nursing, occupational therapy, physiotherapy, dietetics and dentistry disciplines. The data analysis was conducted through thematic analysis. RESULTS : The findings revealed that most participants possessed basic knowledge, except for a few technology enthusiasts. However, most were eager about healthcare digitisation. Most participants acquired computing skills through basic computer literacy classes during their education and work training programmes, but they were not adequately prepared for the inevitable complex digital technologies in healthcare. CONCLUSION : Considering current and future anticipated technological innovations, it is crucial to address healthcare professionals’ HI and digital competencies, which are likely to be further exacerbated by the fifth industrial revolution. It is imperative that healthcare stakeholders, including government bodies, regulatory agencies, educational institutions and healthcare facilities, prioritise engagement and strategies regarding the use of HI and technologies in healthcare.
Silent struggles : exploring social anxiety and its impact on Nigerian adolescents
Muhammed, Shuaib Abolakale; Omidire, Margaret Funke (LED Edizioni Universitarie, 2025)
Social anxiety affects adolescents’ ability to navigate social interactions, influencing their academic performance and mental well-being. However, research on its prevalence among Nigerian secondary school students remains limited. This study explores the incidence of social anxiety among students in Ilorin, Nigeria, with a focus on gender and age differences. Using a descriptive survey design, 400 students were selected through stratified and simple random sampling. Data were collected via the Incidence of Social Anxiety Questionnaire (ISAQ) and analyzed using descriptive statistics and t-tests at a 0.05 significance level. Findings indicate that students commonly experience anxiety in social situations such as eating in public (83.5%), interacting with authority figures (61.8%), and public speaking (61.5%). While age had no significant effect, female students reported higher social anxiety levels than males. The study underscores the need for increased awareness among educators and parents, along with targeted interventions to support adolescents, particularly females, in managing social anxiety. Creating a more inclusive and understanding school environment can help mitigate its effects and enhance students’ overall well-being.
Redemption narratives and rehabilitation? Life story (re)construction among child sexual offenders
Balwanth, Karmini; Liccardo, Sabrina; Guse, Tharina (Taylor and Francis, 2026)
Understanding the life stories of child sexual offenders are essential to inform effective treatment and prevention strategies for child sexual abuse. This study conducted individual interviews to explore the life stories of 12 offenders who were convicted and sentenced for child sexual abuse in South Africa. The offenders constructed redemptive narratives of personal transformation and moral coherence by neutralizing their criminal identities and positioning prosocial identities. The possible association between prosocial identity constructions and behavioral change is relevant to mental health practitioners, correctional officials, and affected communities. We conclude with recommendations for the treatment and prevention of child sexual offending.
Editorial : The psychology of hope
Guse, Tharina; Krafft, Andreas; Fadiji, Angelina Wilson (Frontiers Media, 2025-12-17)
Since the inception of the field of positive psychology, with its interest in understanding factors that make people thrive, hope has featured prominently. Hope is essentially about thoughts, emotions and behaviors related to the future. How individuals view the future, will also influence how they act in the present (Pleeging et al., 2022). Hope thus offers a mechanism for navigating adversity and envisioning possibility, making it an important construct in furthering knowledge and developing interventions to promote wellbeing. However, as the field of positive psychology matures into its third wave and beyond (Lomas et al., 2021; Wissing, 2022) there are calls to revisit our understanding of key wellbeing concepts. More specifically, (van Zyl and Dik 2025) proposed a paradigm shift in examining positive psychology constructs and processes, arguing for a move toward person-centered, ideographic, bottom-up approaches that are more inclusive and context-sensitive. It may be an opportune time to consider hope research against this backdrop.
Students' experiences of learning research methods in an interdisciplinary project-based multi-stakeholder collaboration
Wagner, Claire; Du Toit, Jacques Louis (Indiana University Press, 2026-03-15)
Teaching research methods is a challenging endeavor in any discipline. Approaches that offer beneficial and rewarding learning opportunities to students could improve their experiences of methods courses. This article describes research psychology students’ and urban planning students’ experiences of an approach that combines experiential and interdisciplinary scholarship in a university–science council research collaboration. Qualitative data from a focus group discussion and in-depth interviews generated three themes: Learning about research in the real world, experiences of multidisciplinary teamwork, and the professional and personal development of emerging researchers. These themes underline the importance of offering opportunities for learning about research in real-world settings, particularly when it is possible to involve external partners. We present implications of and recommendations for the implementation of the interdisciplinary project-based learning strategy for teaching research methods.
The dark side of workplace personality : examining the relationship between Horney's neurotic needs, self-esteem and the High Potential Trait Indicator (HPTI)
Furnham, Adrian; Cuppello, Stephen; Mhlanga, Njabulo; Semmelink, David Sanele (Elsevier, 2026-05)
This exploratory study examined demographic, self-esteem, and work-personality correlates of a measure of Horney's Neurotic Needs : Moving away (Detachment), moving against (Aggression), and moving toward (Compliance) others. In all, 319 adults completed the Horney-Coolidge Tri-dimensional Inventory (HCTI), High Potential Trait Indicator (HPTI), and a short measure of self-esteem. The internal reliability of all main factors was satisfactory. Correlational analysis at the factor level showed that none of the Horney scales were significantly correlated with conscientiousness, but all were negatively correlated with adjustment. With the six HPTI traits as the criterion variable, demographics, self-esteem, and the three Horney factors were entered as predictor variables. All regressions significantly explained between a tenth and a quarter of the variance. The analyses of traits adjustment, risk approach and competitiveness accounted for most of the variance. The analysis was repeated using the nine Horney facets. The results suggested that the three Horney traits could be considered “dark-side” variables and a useful measure of personality in applied settings.
Using a cash transfer plus SMS nudge package to improve the wellbeing among caregivers of adolescents living with HIV during the COVID-19 epidemic in South Africa : a pilot randomised controlled trial
Carries, Stanley; Mkhwanazi, Zibuyisile; Sithole, Nokwanda; Sigwadhi , Lovemore; Moshabela, Mosa; Nyirenda, Makandwe; Goudge, Jane; Davids, Eugene Lee; Govindasamy, Darshini (Public Library of Science, 2025-05-16)
Caregivers of adolescents living with HIV encounter multiple economic and psycho-social challenges which impair their wellbeing and provision of optimal care. Cash transfers combined with short message service (SMS) nudges may address the financial and mental barriers to caregiver wellbeing in sub-Saharan Africa. We examined the preliminary effectiveness and feasibility outcomes of this multipronged approach for improving caregiver wellbeing. We piloted the Caregiver Wellbeing intervention in the eThekwini municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the following groups: (i) the intervention arm (n = 50) received three cash payments (of ZAR 350, approximately 21 USD), coupled with behaviourally-informed mobile SMS nudges over a 3-month period; (ii) the control arm (n = 50) received a standard SMS encouraging linkage to health services. The primary outcome was change in psychological wellbeing at four-months follow-up. Secondary outcomes were changes in depressive symptoms and caregiver burden scores, recruitment pace, retention, uptake, acceptability and costs. Trial Registraion Number: PACTR202203585402090. The n = 100 caregivers (mean age = 42.3 years, 87% female) enrolled at baseline were recruited within six weeks. Compared to controls, there was a non-significant increase in psychological wellbeing (β = 3.14, p = 0.319). There was a 1.32 unit (p = 0.085) decrease in depressive symptoms and a reduction in caregiver burden (β = -1.28, p = 0.020) in the intervention arm. Participant retention was 85%, with high intervention uptake (95%). Caregivers expressed appreciation for the intervention as the cash component allowed them to fulfil their carer responsibilities and the SMS brought a sense of belonging and self-acceptance. Total societal cost of the intervention was US$13,549, and the incremental cost per increase in wellbeing score was US$1,080. Results suggest a cash transfer plus SMS nudge package, whilst feasible and acceptable, may require longer duration and an economic empowerment component to enhance caregiver wellbeing as part of post-pandemic recovery efforts.
Fanon on gaze and voice in a Dying Colonialism
Hook, Derek (Sage, 2026)
The prayer with which Frantz Fanon ends Black Skin White Masks (“O my body, make of me always a man who questions!”) begs the question of how the relation between how these two registers of experience – bodily and enunciative subjectivity – might be secured. This is a crucial question given the alienating force of the colonial gaze to which Fanon has been subjected, a gaze which results in the bodily schema being “thingified,” in mind and body inhabiting different worlds. What kind of decolonial object or activity is needed to hold together the existential registers of bodily, enunciative/subjective and social/communal experience for the colonized subject? Fanon himself seems to provide examples of such a decolonial object in two chapters from A Dying Colonialism, namely, the veil (in the chapter entitled “Algerian unveiled”) and the voice (in “This is the Voice of Fighting Algerian”). This article explores Fanon’s descriptions of the anti-colonial, re-humanizing potentiality of these objects. It offers an expansion on Fanon’s theorizing, via a brief foray into the psychoanalytic notion of the drive, and concludes with a series of speculations regards how a decolonial object provides “ontological resistance” to colonial subjugation.
Psychosocial factors influencing the sexual risk behaviour of adolescents living with and affected by HIV who reside in HIV-affected homes in Uganda
Kiirya, Stephen Kisembe; Visser, Maret; Masenge, Andries (Springer, 2026-05)
We examined the psychosocial factors that predict sexual risk behaviour of adolescents who reside in HIV affected homes in Uganda, to provide evidence for developing suitable interventions. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data about these adolescents’ psychosocial and sexual experiences. The scales and data were verified for precision and reliability using factor analyses, while the predictors of sexual risk behaviour were examined using general linear models. Results showed that having been female, in the younger adolescence stage and a Muganda or Lango, living with one caregiver, being a recipient of HIV/psychosocial care and vulnerable to negative peer influence, personal threats, interpersonal problems, psychosocial distresses (e.g. psychosis and delinquency) and coping by deflecting problems, significantly enabled sexual risk behaviour in these adolescents. However, attending school, religious conviction, experiencing orphanhood especially of the mother, living with two caregivers, and experiencing poverty, judgmental HIV stigma, distress (e.g. inattention and depression), self-control and social support significantly deterred it. These results highlight the centrality of gender, age, HIV care, family situations, sociocultural and peer norms, community stressors, psychosocial distresses, and negative coping methods in influencing sexual risk behaviour of adolescents who reside in HIV affected homes. Interventions by families, schools and agencies are needed to prevent or mitigate these risk factors.
Psychosocial experiences and sexual risk behaviour of the adolescents living with and affected by HIV who reside in HIV affected homes in Uganda
Kiirya, Stephen Kisembe; Visser, Maretha; Masenge, Andries (Taylor and Francis, 2026)
We compared the levels of psychosocial and sexual experiences of adolescents aged 10–19 years who were living with (ALHIV) and affected by HIV who resided in HIV-affected homes of Uganda. Data were collected using a questionnaire that was validated using factor analysis. The levels of psychosocial and sexual experiences of these adolescents were compared using variance and Kruskal–Wallis tests. Results showed that whereas these adolescents were exposed to each observed factor, the ALHIV were significantly more vulnerable to lower education levels, living with sick people, death of both parents, changing homes, living with caregivers who were relatives or alcohol users, negative peer influence, poverty, personal and interpersonal problems, distress, sexual risk behaviour, and negative coping methods, compared to those not living with HIV or unaware of their HIV status. Hence, despite the higher primary education achievement and access to HIV services, ALHIV face a lesser sense of belonging, a higher burden of caring for their family members’ sicknesses, higher vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases, and poorer coping abilities compared to the other adolescents in the same home. Interventions are needed from families, schools and agencies to address the risk and protective factors among these adolescents.

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